Glossary

Lit. “gesture of fearlessness”; a hand gesture performed with the right hand raised to shoulder height, the palm facing outward and the fingers pointing upward. It symbolises reassurance and benevolence.

A lower-body garment, part of the traditional three-piece robe (tricivara) of Buddhist monks and nuns.

A celestial female being associated with beauty, music, dance, and the heavenly realms in Buddhist and Hindu traditions.

A bodily radiance symbolising spiritual transcendence.

The ultimate state of awakening and supreme knowledge attained by a Buddha.

A being destined for enlightenment (bodhi) who, out of supreme compassion, defers entry into Nirvana in order to help all sentient beings attain liberation. See Maitreya.

Lit. “Enlightened One”; a being who has attained awakening or enlightenment (bodhi) and liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara). The title most commonly refers to Siddhartha Gautama, also known as Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha and founder of Buddhism.

Lit. “Wheel of Dharma gesture”; a hand gesture performed with both hands held before the chest, the thumb and index finger of each hand touching to form a circle. It symbolises the Buddha Shakyamuni’s teachings, and in early Buddhist art, this gesture is associated with his First Sermon at Sarnath.

Lit. “meditation gesture”; a hand gesture performed with both hands resting one over the other in the lap. It symbolises spiritual concentration.

A common feature in representations of buddhas, evoking Shakyamuni’s renunciation of worldly wealth.

An iconographic type depicting a figure seated on a jewelled throne and flanked by attendants. The throne, adorned with drapery, typically features a high backrest, is supported by animal figures (such as lions or elephants), and is surmounted by a four-column canopy.

An oblong water pot or flask carried by Indian ascetics, representing purity and detachment from material wealth. In Buddhist tradition, it is attributed to Maitreya, the Buddha-to-be.

The cumulative effects of one’s intentional actions, whether positive or negative, accumulated over successive lives.

A distinguishing mark or physical characteristic of a buddha, such as the ushnisha and urna. In Buddhist traditions, lakshanas are classified into thirty-two major marks and eighty secondary marks. They are associated with the broader Indian concepts of the mahapurusha (“Great Being”) and cakravartin (“Universal Ruler”).

A bodhisattva regarded as the future Buddha, believed to restore Shakyamuni’s teachings. In Buddhist art, Maitreya is traditionally depicted holding a kamandalu, in accordance with traditions in which he will be reborn as an ascetic.

A radiant disk surrounding the head of a sacred or divine figure, symbolising its transcendent nature.

The ultimate state of liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering.

Lit. “lotus posture”; a meditative seated position with the legs crossed and the feet resting on the opposite thighs.

A wrapped lower garment worn around the hips and legs by secular figures and bodhisattvas.

The Buddha's final passing into Nirvana at the moment of his physical death, marking the complete cessation of rebirth and the attainment of final liberation. In Buddhist art, it is traditionally represented by the reclining Buddha surrounded by disciples and mourning figures.

An outer robe, one of the three garments (tricivara) worn by Buddhist monks and nuns.

Lit. “wandering through”; the endless cycle of rebirth resulting from karma and driven by ignorance and desire.

An architectural type of stupa with a multi-storeyed, star-shaped ground plan, provided with stairways at each of the four cardinal points. Such monuments are traditionally associated with the “Descent Stūpa”, commemorating the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven, the celestial realm of the gods in Buddhist cosmology. Although only a few monumental examples are known from Afghanistan and neighbouring regions, numerous portable miniature stūpas of this type have been documented.

A Buddhist monument enshrining relics of a buddha or other enlightened beings, or commemorating sacred events, serving as a focus for devotion and pilgrimage.

The traditional three-piece monastic robe prescribed for Buddhist monks, consisting of the antaravasaka (lower robe), uttarasanga (upper robe) and samghati (outer robe).

A whorl of hair found on the forehead, recognised as one of the thirty-two major marks (lakshana) of a buddha, symbolising his supernatural vision and spiritual insight. In Buddhist iconography, it is usually depicted as a raised or shallow dot, sometimes set with a precious stone.

A cranial protuberance characteristic of a buddha, regarded as one of the thirty-two major marks (lakshana) of enlightenment and a sign of his transcendent status.

A garment covering the upper body, one of the three pieces forming the Buddhist monastic attire (tricivara).

An upper garment or shawl draped over the shoulders or around the upper body, worn by secular figures (both male and female) and bodhisattvas.

Lit. “gift-granting gesture”; a hand gesture usually performed with the right hand extended downward and the palm facing outward. It symbolises compassion, charity, and the granting of blessings, wishes, or spiritual benefits.